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CompetitionsCompetitions are rivalries between individuals, groups, nations or animals, for territory or resources. They arise whenever two or more parties strive for a goal which cannot be shared. Competitions occur naturally between living organisms which co-exist in the same environment. For example, animals engage in competitions over water supplies, food and mates. In addition, humans engage in competitions for attention, wealth, prestige and fame. Businesses are often associated with competitions as most companys compete over the same group of customers.Competitions may give incentives for self-improvement. For example, if two watchmakers are in competition for business, they will lower their prices and improve their products to increase sales. If birds engage in competitions for a limited water supply during a drought, the more suited birds will survive to reproduce and improve the population. Rivals will often refer to their competitors as " the competition ". The term can also be used to refer to a contest or tournament itself.
Meaning of the term CompetitionsThe Latin root for the verb "to compete" is "competere", which means "to seek together" or "to strive together". However, even the general definition stated above is not universally accepted. Social theorists, most notably Alfie Kohn [2] and cooperativists in general argue that the traditional definition of competitions is too broad and vague. Competitions which originate internally and are biologically motivated can and should be defined as either amoral competitions or simply the survival instinct, i.e. behaviour which is neither good nor bad but exists to further the survival of an individual or species (for instance hunting) or behavior which is coerced (for instance self-defense). Social Darwinists, however, state that competitions are not only moral but necessary for the survival of the species.
Sizes and Levels CompetitionsCompetitions may also exist at different sizes; some competitions may be between two members of a species, while other competitions can involve entire species. Example in economics, competitions between two small stores would be considered small compared to competitions between several mega-giants. As a result, the consequences of the competitions would also vary - the larger the competitions , the larger the effect.In addition, the level of competitions can also vary. At some levels, competitions can be informal; more for pride and / or fun. However, other competitions can be extremely serious; for example, some human wars have erupted because of intense competitions between two nations or nationalities.
Destructive Competitions and Co-operative Competitions
Consequences of Engaging in CompetitionsCompetitions can have both beneficial and detrimental effects. Many evolutionary biologists view inter-species and intra-species competitions as the driving force of adaptation and ultimately of evolution. However, some biologists, most famously Richard Dawkins, prefer to think of evolution in terms of competitions between single genes, which have the welfare of the organism 'in mind' only insofar as that welfare furthers their own selfish drives for replication. Some social Darwinists claim (controversially) that competitions also serves as mechanisms for determining the best-suited group; politically, economically and ecologically.On the negative side, competitions can cause injury to the organisms involved and drain valuable resources and energy. Human competitions can be expensive, as is the case with political elections, international sports competitions and advertising wars. They can lead to the compromising of ethical standards in order to gain an advantage: for example, several athletes have been caught using banned steroids in professional sports in order to boost their own chances of success or victory. They can also be harmful for the participants, such as athletes who injure themselves when pushing their body past its natural limits or companies which pursue unprofitable paths while engaging in competitive rivalries.
Competitions in Economics and BusinessMerriam-Webster defines competitions in business as "the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms". Seen as the pillar of capitalism in that it may stimulate innovation, encourage efficiency or drive down prices, competition is touted as the foundation upon which capitalism is justified. According to microeconomic theory, no system of resource allocation is more efficient than pure competitions . Competitions, according to theory, cause commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. The greater selection typically causes lower prices for the products, compared to what the price would be if there were no competitions (monopolies) or little competition (oligopoly).However, competitions may also lead to wasted (duplicated) effort and to increased costs (and prices) in some circumstances. For example, the intense competition for the small number of top jobs in music and movie acting leads many aspiring musicians and actors to make substantial investments in training which are not recouped because only a fraction become successful.
Three Levels of Economic Competitions have been Classified:
Competitions do not necessarily have to be between companies. For example, business writers sometimes refer to internal competitions . These are competitions within companies. The idea was first introduced by Alfred Sloan at General Motors in the 1920s. Sloan deliberately created areas of overlap between divisions of the company so that each division would be competing with the other divisions. For example, the Chevy division would compete with the Pontiac division for some market segments. Also, in 1931, Procter & Gamble initiated a deliberate system of internal brand-versus-brand rivalry. The company was organized around different brands, with each brand allocated resources, including a dedicated group of employees willing to champion the brand. Each brand manager was given responsibility for the success or failure of the brand and compensated accordingly. This is known as intra-brand competition. Finally, most businesses also encourage competitions between individual employees. An example of this is a contest between sales representatives. The sales representative with the highest sales (or the best improvement in sales) over a period of time would gain benefits from the employer. It should also be noted that business and economic competitions in most countries are often limited or restricted. Competitions are often subject to legal restrictions. For example, competitions may be legally prohibited, as in the case with a government monopoly or a government-granted monopoly. Tariffs, subsidies or other protectionist measures may also be instituted by government in order to prevent or reduce competitions . Depending on the respective economic policy, the pure competitions are to a greater or lesser extent regulated by competitions policy and competitions law. Competitions between countries are quite subtle to detect but are quite evident in the World economy. Countries compete to provide the best possible business environment for multinational corporations. Such competitions are evident by the policies undertaken by these countries to educate the future workforce. For example, East Asian economies such as Singapore, Japan and South Korea tend to emphasize education by allocating a large portion of the budget to this sector and by implementing programmes such as gifted education.
Competitions LawCompetitions law, known in the United States as antitrust law, has three main functions.
In recent decades, competitions law has also been sold as good medicine to provide better public services, traditionally funded by tax payers and administered by democratically accountable governments. Hence competitions law is closely connected with the law on deregulation of access to markets, providing state aids and subsidies, the privatisation of state-owned assets and the use of independent sector regulators, such as the United Kingdom telecommunications watchdog Ofcom. Behind the practice lies the theory, which over the last fifty years has been dominated by neo-classical economics. Markets are seen as the most efficient method of allocating resources, although sometimes they fail and regulation becomes necessary to protect the ideal market model. Behind the theory lies the history, reaching back further than the Roman Empire. The business practices of market traders, guilds and governments have always been subject to scrutiny and sometimes severe sanctions. Since the twentieth century, competitions law has become global. The two largest, most organised and influential systems of competitions regulation are United States antitrust law and European Community competitions law. The respective national authorities, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in the United States and the European Commission's Competitions Directorate General (DGCOMP) have formed international support and enforcement networks. Competitions law is growing in importance every day, which warrants for its careful study.
Competitions in PoliticsCompetitions are also found in politics. In democracies, an election is a competition for an elected office. In other words, two or more candidates strive and compete against one another to attain a position of power. The winner gains the seat of the elected office for a predefined period of time, towards the end of which another election is usually held to determine the next holder of the office.In addition, there are inevitable competitions inside governments. Because several offices are appointed, potential candidates compete against the others in order to gain a particular office. Departments may also compete for a limited amount of resources, such as for funding. Finally, where there are party systems, elected leaders of different parties will ultimately compete against the other parties for laws, funding and power. Finally, competitions also exists between governments. Each country or nationality struggles for world dominance, power or military strength. For example, the United States competed against the Soviet Union in the Cold War for world power and the two also struggled over the different types of government (in these cases representative democracy and communism). The result of these type of competitions often lead to worldwide tensions and may sometimes erupt into warfare.
Competitions in SportsWhile some sports (such as fishing or hiking) have been viewed as primarily recreational, most sports are considered to be competitions . The majority involve competitions between two or more persons (or animals and / or mechanical devices typically controlled by humans, as in horse racing or auto racing). For example, in a game of basketball, two teams compete against one another to determine who can score the most points. While there is no set reward for the winning team, many players gain an internal sense of pride. In addition, extrinsic rewards may also be given. Athletes, besides competing against other humans, also compete against nature in sports such as whitewater kayaking or mountaineering, where the goal is to reach a destination, with only natural barriers impeding the process. Regularly scheduled (for instance annual) competitions meant to determine the "best" competitor of that cycle are called a championships.While professional sports have been usually viewed as intense and extreme competitions , recreational sports, which are often less intense, are often considered a healthy option for the release of competitive urges in humans. Sport provides a relatively safe venue for converting unbridled competition into harmless competition because sports competitions are restrained. Competitive sports are governed by codified rules agreed upon by the participants. Violating these rules is considered to be unfair competition . Thus, sports provide artificial (not natural) competitions ; for example, competing for control of a ball or defending territory on a playing field is not an innate biological factor in humans. Athletes in sports such as gymnastics and competitive diving compete against each other in order to come closest to a conceptual ideal of a perfect performance, which incorporates measurable criteria and standards which are translated into numerical ratings and scores by appointed judges. Sports competitions are generally broken down into three categories:
Whilst most sports competitions are recreational, there exist several major and minor professional sports leagues throughout the world. The Olympic Games, held every four years, is usually regarded as the international pinnacle of sports competitions .
Competitions in EducationCompetitions are a major factor in education. On a global scale, national education systems, intending to bring out the best in the next generation, encourage competitions (competitiveness) among students through scholarships. Countries such as England and Singapore have special education programmes which cater for specialist students, prompting charges of academic elitism. Upon receipt of their academic results, students tend to compare their grades to see who is better. In severe cases, the pressure to perform in some countries is so high that it can result in stigmatization of intellectually deficient students or even suicide as a consequence of failing the exams; Japan being a prime example. This has resulted in critical re-evaluation of examinations as a whole by educationalists. Critics of competitions (as opposed to excellence) as a motivating factor in education systems, such as Alfie Kohn, assert that competition actually has a net negative influence on the achievement levels of students and that it "turns all of us into losers" (Kohn 1986).Competitions also make up a large proponent of extracurricular activities in which students participate. Such competitions include TVO's broadcast Reach for the Top competition, FIRST Robotics, Duke Annual Robo-Climb Competition (DARC) and the University of Toronto Space Design Contest. In Texas, the University Interscholastic League (UIL) has 22 High School-level contests and 18 elementary and Junior High in subjects ranging from accounting to science to ready writing.
Competitions within Biology and EcologyCompetitions within and between species are important topics in biology, specifically in the field of ecology. Competitions between members of a species are the driving force behind evolution and natural selection; the competitions for resources such as food, water, territory and sunlight results in the ultimate survival and dominance of the variation of the species best suited for survival. Competitions are also present between species. A limited amount of resources are available and several species may depend on these resources. Thus, each of the species competes with the others to gain access to the resources. As a result, species less suited to compete for the resources must either adapt or die out. According to evolutionary theory, these competitions within and between species for resources play a critical role in natural selection. For example, a smaller tree will receive less sunlight than an adjacent tree which is larger than it in a rainforest. The larger tree is competing with the smaller one for the same sunlight.
The Study of CompetitionsCompetitions have been studied in several fields including psychology, sociology and anthropology. Social psychologists, for instance, study the nature of competitions . They investigate the natural urge of competitions and their circumstances. They also study group dynamics to detect how competitions emerge and what their effects are. Sociologists, meanwhile, study the effects of competitions on society as a whole. In addition, anthropologists study the history and prehistory of competitions in various cultures. They also investigate how competitions manifest in various cultural settings in the past, and how competitions have developed over time.
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