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MusicMusic is an art form in which the medium is sound organized in time. Common elements of music are pitch which governs melody and harmony, rhythm and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation, dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture.
Definition of MusicTo many, music is a way of life, such as it is to the Native Americans, who use their music to pray. Many still use this practice today, who have found their hearts in the melodies. Greek philosophers and ancient Indians defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as "the harmony of the spheres" and "it is music to my ears" point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to but the opinion of the listener does not necessarily help music theorists formulate a precise definition of music . Like the notion that visual arts must be beautiful to behold, the tacit notion that music need be pleasant to listen to has been questioned.20th-century music composer John Cage was explicit that any sound can be music saying, for example, "There is no noise, only sound." According to music ologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, "the border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus. By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be except that it is 'sound through time'." The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized compositions and their recreation in performance, through improvisational music to aleatoric forms. Music can be divided into genres and subgenres although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle sometimes open to individual interpretation and occasionally controversial. Within "the arts", music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art and auditory art.
The History of MusicThe development of music among humans it is assumed must have taken place against the backdrop of natural sounds such as birdsong and the sounds other animals use to communicate. It is also assumed that prehistoric music is the name which is given to all music produced in preliterate cultures.
Ancient MusicA range of paleolithic sites have yielded bones in which lateral holes have been pierced: these are usually identified as flutes, blown at one end like the Japanese shakuhachi. The earliest written records of music expression are to be found in the Samaveda of India and in 4,000 year old Instruments, such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments that have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization archaeological sites. India has one of the oldest music traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (marga) can be found in the ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. The traditional art or court music of China has a history stretching for more than three thousand years. Music was an important part of cultural and social life in Ancient Greece: mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual ceremonies; musicians and singers had a prominent role in ancient Greek theater music .In the 9th century, al-Farabi wrote a notable book on music titled Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir ("Great Book of Music"). He played and invented a variety of musical instruments and devised the Arab music tone system of pitch organisation, which is still used in Arabic music .
Medieval Music and Renaissance MusicWhile music life in Europe was undoubtedly rich in the early Medieval era, as attested by artistic depictions of instruments, writings about music and other records, the only European music repertory which has survived from before about 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Several schools of liturgical polyphony flourished beginning in the 12th century. Alongside these traditions of sacred music , a vibrant tradition of secular song developed, exemplified by the music of the troubadours, trouveres and Minnesanger.Much of the surviving music of 14th century Europe is secular. By the middle of the 15th century, composers and singers used a smooth polyphony for sacred music compositions such as the mass, the motet, and the laude, and secular forms such as the chanson and the madrigal. It is assumed that the introduction of commercial printing had an immense influence on the dissemination of music styles.
European Baroque MusicThe first operas, written around 1600 and the rise of contrapuntal music define the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque era that lasted until roughly 1750, the year of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach.German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as choirs, pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During the Baroque music period, several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the concerto.
European Classical Period MusicThe music of the Classical period is characterized by homophonic texture, often featuring a prominent music melody with accompaniment. These new music melodies tended to be almost voice-like and singable. The now popular instrumental music was dominated by further evolution of music forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, and the concerto, with the addition of the new form, the symphony. Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart are among the central figures of the Classical music period.
Romantic MusicLudwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert were transitional composers, leading into the Romantic period with their expansion of existing genres, forms, and functions of music . In the Romantic period, the emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over the orientation towards music technique and tradition. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the music orchestra, and in the role of music concerts as part of urban society. Later Romantic music composers created complex and often much longer musical works merging and expanding traditional forms that had previously been used separately. For example, counterpoint, combined with harmonic music structures to create more extended chords with increased use of dissonance and to create dramatic tension and resolution.
20th century MusicIn the 20th century there was a vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity worldwide and new music media and technologies were developed to record, capture, reproduce and distribute music . The focus of art music was characterized by exploration. Claude Debussy has become well-known and respected for his orientation towards colours and depictions in his compositional style. Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential music composers in 20th century art music . Jazz evolved and became a significant genre of music over the course of the 20th century and during the second half of that century, rock music did the same.
Music PerformancePerformance is the physical expression of music . Often, a musical work is performed once its structure and instrumentation are satisfactory to its creators; however, as it gets performed, the music can evolve and change.A performance can either be rehearsed or improvised. Improvisation is a music idea created without premeditation while rehearsal is vigorous repetition of an idea until it has achieved cohesion. Musicians will sometimes add improvisation to a well-rehearsed idea to create a unique music performance. Many cultures include strong traditions of solo and performance such as in Indian classical music and in the Western Art music tradition. Other cultures such as in Bali, include strong traditions of group music performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organised performance rituals such as the modern classical music concert, religious processions, music festivals and music competitions. Chamber music which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate music than symphonic works.
Aural MusicMany types of music such as traditional blues and folk music were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally, or aurally (by ear). When the composer of music is no longer known, this music is often classified as "traditional". Different music traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material from quite strict, to those which demand improvisation or modification of the music . A culture's music history may also be passed by ear through song.
Ornamentation MusicThe detail included explicitly in the music notation varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art music notation from the 17th through the 19th century required performers to have a great deal of contextual knowledge about performing music styles.For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo performers typically indicated a simple unornamented melody. However, it was expected that music performers would know how to add stylistically-appropriate ornaments such as trills and turns. In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a general instruction such as to perform the music expressively without describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was expected that the performer would know how to use tempo changes, accentuation, and pauses among other devices to obtain this "expressive" music performance style. In the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit and used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to music performers how they should play or sing the piece. In popular music and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles associated with specific genres and music pieces. For example, the "lead sheet" for a jazz music tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the jazz music ensemble are expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music and chordal accompaniment.
Music productionMusic is composed and performed for many purposes ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious purposes, ceremonial purposes or as a music entertainment product for the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose and perform music for their own pleasure and they do not derive their income from music . Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and organisations including armed forces, churches, synagogues, symphony orchestras, broadcasting companies, film production companies and music schools. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers seeking contracts and music engagements in a variety of settings.There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of music ensembles and orchestras. In some cases, amateur musicians attain a professional level of music competence, and they are able to perform music in professional performance settings. A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit of a live audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live music performance in front of an audience is recorded and distributed.
Music Composition"Composition" is often classed as the creation and recording of music via a medium such as paper or sound by which others can interpret it. Many cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving music material or composition, as held in western classical music . Even when music is notated precisely, there are still many decisions that a performer has to make. The process of a performer deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed interpretation.Different performers' interpretations of the same music can vary widely. Composers and song writers who present their own music are interpreting just as much as those who perform the music of others or folk music . The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice where as interpretation is generally used to mean either individual choices of a performer or an aspect of music which is not clear and therefore has a "standard" interpretation. In some musical genres, such as jazz music and blues music , even more freedom is given to the music performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic, harmonic or rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the music performer in a style of performing called free improvisation which is material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed and is not preconceived. According to the analysis of Georgiana Costescu, improvised music usually follows stylistic or genre conventions and even "fully composed" includes some freely chosen music material. Composition does not always mean the use of notation or the known sole music authorship of one individual. Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create musical sounds; examples of this range from wind chimes through computer programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements selected by chance is called Aleatoric music and is associated with such composers as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutoslawski. Musical composition is a term that describes the composition of a piece of music . Methods of music composition vary widely from one composer to another, however in analysing music all forms — spontaneous, trained or untrained — are built from elements comprising a musical piece. Music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be improvised that meaning, composed on the spot. The music can be performed entirely from memory, from a written system of music notation or some combination of both. Study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music but the definition of composition is broad enough to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz music performers and African music drummers such as the Ewe drummers. What is important in understanding the composition of a piece of music is singling out its elements. An understanding of formal elements of music can be helpful in deciphering exactly how a piece is constructed. A universal element of music is how sounds occur in time which is referred to as the rhythm of a piece of music . When a piece of music appears to have a changing time-feel, it is considered to be in rubato time, an Italian expression that indicates that the tempo of the piece of music changes to suit the expressive intent of the performer. Even random placement of random sounds which occurs in musical montage, occurs within some kind of time and thus employs time as a music element.
Music NotationNotation is the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music is notated along with instructions on how to perform the music . The study of how to read notation involves music theory, harmony, the study of performance practice and in some cases an understanding of historical music performance methods.Written notation varies with style and period of music . In Western Art music , the most common types of written notation are scores which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece and parts which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music , jazz music and blues music , the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics and structure of the music . Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz music , particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands." In popular music , guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument. Notated music is produced as sheet music . To perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the musical style and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or genre.
Music ImprovisationImprovisation is the creation of spontaneous music . Improvisation is often considered an act of instantaneous composition by music composers where compositional techniques are employed with or without preparation.
Music TheoryMusic theory encompasses the nature and mechanics of music . It often involves identifying patterns that govern music composers' techniques. In a more detailed sense, music theory in the western system also distills and analyzes the elements of music – rhythm, harmony, melody, structure, and texture. People who study these properties are known as music theorists.
Music CognitionThe field of music cognition involves the study of many aspects of music including how it is processed by listeners. Rather than accepting the standard practices of analyzing, composing, and performing music as given, much research in music cognition seeks instead to uncover the mental processes that underlie these practices. Also, research in the field seeks to uncover commonalities between the music traditions of disparate cultures and possible cognitive "constraints" that limit these music systems. Questions regarding musical innateness, and emotional responses to music are also major areas of research in the field.Deaf people can experience music by feeling the vibrations in their body, a process which can be enhanced if the individual holds a resonant, hollow object. A well-known deaf musician is the composer Ludwig van Beethoven who composed many famous music works even after he had completely lost his hearing. Recent examples of deaf musicians include Evelyn Glennie, a highly acclaimed percussionist who has been deaf since age twelve, and Chris Buck, a virtuoso violinist who has lost his hearing. This is relevant because it indicates that music is a deeper cognitive process than unexamined phrases such as, "pleasing to the ear" would suggest. Much research in music cognition seeks to uncover these complex mental processes involved in listening to music which may seem intuitively simple yet are vastly intricate and complex.
Music SociologyMusic is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large music concert. Musical performances take different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and North America there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as a "high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" types of music typically include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic and modern-era symphonies, concertos, solo works and are typically heard in formal music concerts in concert halls and churches with the audience sitting quietly in seats.Other types of music - including, but not limited to, jazz music , blues music , soul music , and country music - are often performed in bars, nightclubs and theatres where the audience may be able to drink, dance and express themselves by cheering. Until the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" music forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better quality, more advanced " art music " from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived divide between "high" and "low" music genres argued that this distinction is not based on the music value or quality of the different types of music . Rather, they argued that this distinction was based largely on the socioeconomic standing or social class of the performers or audience of the different types of music . For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony music concerts typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a rap music concert in an inner-city area may have below-average incomes. Even though the music performers, audience or venue where non-"art" music is performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is performed, such as blues music , rap music , punk music , funk music or ska music may be very complex and sophisticated. When musiccomposers introduce styles of music which break with convention, there can be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture. Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores, serialism, bebop-era jazz music , hip hop music , punk rock music , and electronica music have all been considered non - music by some critics when they were first introduced. Such themes are examined in the sociology of music . The sociological study of music , sometimes called sociomusicology is often pursued in departments of sociology, media studies or music and is closely related to the field of ethnomusicology.
Computer Music - Media and TechnologyThe music that composers make can be heard through several media; the most traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence or as one of the musicians. Live music can also be broadcast over the radio, television or the Internet. Some music styles focus on producing a sound for a performance while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never played "live". Recording music , even of styles which are essentially live often uses the ability to edit and splice to produce recordings which are considered better than the actual music performance.As talking pictures emerged in the early 20th century, with their prerecorded music tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work. During the 1920s live music performances by orchestras, pianists and theater organists were common at first-run theaters. With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances were largely eliminated. The American Federation of Musicians (AFM) took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever" Since legislation introduced to help protect music performers, composers, publishers and producers including the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 in the United States and the 1979 revised Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in the United Kingdom recordings and live music performances have also become more accessible through computers, devices and Internet in a form that is commonly known as Music - On - Demand. In many cultures, there is less distinction between performing and listening to music since virtually everyone is involved in some sort of music activity, often communal. In industrialized countries, listening to music through a recorded form such as sound recording or watching a music video, became more common than experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle of the 20th century. Sometimes, live music performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a disc jockey uses disc records for scratching and some 20th century music works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music. Audiences can also become performers by participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin which centres around a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.
Internet MusicThe advent of the Internet has transformed the experience of music partly through the increased ease of access to music and the increased choice. Chris Anderson, in his book The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More suggests that while the economic model of supply and demand describes scarcity, the Internet retail model is based on abundance. Digital storage costs are low, so a company can afford to make its whole inventory available online giving customers as much music choice as possible. It has thus become economically viable to offer products that very few people are interested in. Consumers' growing awareness of their increased choice results in a closer association between music listening tastes and social identity and the creation of thousands of niche markets.Another effect of the Internet arises with online communities like YouTube and MySpace. MySpace has made social networking with other musicians easier and greatly facilitates the distribution of one's music . YouTube also has a large community of both amateur and professional musicians who post videos and comments. Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of promotional material. YouTube users for example no longer only download and listen to music MP3s but also actively create their own.
The Music Industry BusinessThe music industry refers to the business industry connected with the creation and sale of music . It consists of record companies, labels and publishers that distribute recorded music products internationally and that often control the rights to those products. Some music labels are "independent," while others are subsidiaries of larger corporate entities or international media groups.
Music EducationThe incorporation of music training from preschool to post secondary education is common in North America and Europe. Involvement in music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, counting, listening and cooperation while also promoting understanding of language, improving the ability to recall information and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas. In elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder, sing in small choirs and learn about the history of Western art music . In secondary schools students may have the opportunity to perform some type of music ensemble, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, jazz music bands, or orchestras and in some school systems, music classes may be available. Some students also take private music lessons with a teacher. Amateur musicians typically take lessons to learn musical rudiments and beginner- to intermediate-level music techniques.At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can receive credit for taking music courses which typically take the form of an overview course on the history of music or a music appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different music styles. In addition, most North American and European universities have some type of music ensemble that non - music students are able to participate in such as choirs, marching bands or orchestras. The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe such as the Indonesian Institute of the Arts in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, or the classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan and China. At the same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures such as the music of Africa or Bali.
Music AcademiaMusicology is the study of the subject of music . The earliest definitions defined three sub-disciplines: systematic musicology, historical musicology, and comparative musicology or ethnomusicology. In contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work for example in the field of psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-western cultures and the cultural study of music is called ethnomusicology.Graduates of undergraduate music programs can go on to further study in music graduate programs. Graduate degrees include the Master of Music , the Master of Arts, the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) (e.g., in musicology or music theory) and more recently, the Doctor of Musical Arts, or DMA. The Master of Music degree which takes one to two years to complete is typically awarded to students studying the performance of an instrument, education, voice or music composition. The Master of Arts degree, which takes one to two years to complete and often requires a thesis is typically awarded to students studying musicology, music history or music theory. Undergraduate university degrees in music including the Bachelor of Music, the Bachelor of Music Education and the Bachelor of Arts ( with a major in music ) typically take three to five years to complete. These degrees provide students with a grounding in music theory and music history and many students also study an instrument or learn singing technique as part of their program. The PhD which is required for students who want to work as university professors in musicology, music history or music theory, takes three to five years of study after the Master's degree during which time the student will complete advanced courses and undertake research for a dissertation. The DMA is a relatively new degree that was created to provide a credential for professional music performers or composers that want to work as university professors in musical performance or music composition. The DMA takes three to five years after a Master's degree and includes advanced courses, projects, and performances. In Medieval times, the study of music was one of the Quadrivium of the seven Liberal Arts and considered vital to higher learning. Within the quantitative Quadrivium, music or more accurately harmonics was the study of rational proportions. Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, " do animals have music ?" Music theory is the study of music generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music , usually related in some form with compositional concerns and may include mathematics, physics and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period or tonal music . Theory, even that which studies music of the common practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set theory is the application of mathematical set theory to music first applied to atonal music . Speculative music theory contrasted with analytic music theory is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition.
EthnomusicologyIn the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western civilization's art music . The history of music in other cultures ( " world music " or the field of "ethnomusicology" ) is also taught in Western universities. This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe as well as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures.Popular styles of music vary widely from culture to culture and from period to period. Different cultures emphasised different instruments or techniques, or uses for music . Music has been used not only for entertainment, for ceremonies and for practical and artistic communication but also for propaganda in totalitarian countries. There is a host of music classifications, many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music . Among the largest of these is the division between classical music ( or "art" music ), and popular music ( or commercial music - including rock and roll music , country music , and pop music ). Some genres don't fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications such as folk music , world music or jazz music . As world cultures have come into greater contact, their indigenous music styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the United States bluegrass music style contains elements from Anglo-Irish music , Scottish music, Irish music , German and African instrumental and vocal traditions which were able to fuse in the United States' multi-ethnic society. Genres of music are determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music . Some music works like George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue are claimed by both jazz music and classical music while Gershwin's Porgy and Bess and Leonard Bernstein's West Side Story are claimed by both opera music and the Broadway musical tradition. Many current music festivals celebrate a particular musical genre. Indian music for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of music and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia as well as internationally. Indian music has mainly 3 forms of classical music , Hindustani, Carnatic, and Dhrupad music styles. It has also a large repertoire of styles which involve only percussion music such as the talavadya performances famous in South India.
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